The virtuous rulers in Chinese history – from Yu of the Xia Dynasty (2200 – 2101 BC), Tang of the Shang Dynasty (1675 – 1646 BC), Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty (156 – 87 BC), Emperor Dezong of the Tang Dynasty (742 – 805 AD), Emperor Shizu of the Qing Dynasty (1638 – 1661 AD) to Emperor Shengzu of the Qing Dynasty (1654 – 1722 AD), would reflect upon themselves each time a major disaster occurred. Be it natural or man-made, they would ask themselves: Have I done something wrong? Why would Heaven be enraged? Then these rulers would cleanse their bodies, go on a vegetarian diet, and worship Heaven and Earth. Some rulers would even issue an edict of repentance to the whole empire to confess and repent for their mistakes and to pledge to Heaven and their people to rectify their mistakes. In the edicts of repentance, these virtuous Chinese rulers also asked their people for their supervision and advice so as to obtain forgiveness from Heaven and to spare their people from Heaven's rage.
 
It is fairly common for a man of conscience to own up to his mistakes and repent. However, it was not easy for ancient emperors who had ascended to their thrones by a "mandate of Heaven" to reflect upon themselves and repent for their mistakes. It was even more commendable for an emperor to issue an edict of repentance to openly confess his mistakes to his entire empire. Why would a Chinese emperor, believed to be a "son of Heaven," want to openly admit and repent for his mistakes? The explanation lies in Chinese culture and tradition.
 
In ancient China, it was believed that Heaven is the ultimate ruler of all and a human king on earth is sent down to earth by Heaven to rule over people. Hence, an emperor was also known as a "son of Heaven." Heaven is not partial to anyone and will assist those people who are virtuous. People's loyalty changes and only kindness will win them over. Whether an emperor would obtain protection from Heaven depended on the emperor's personal virtue, for Heaven will only watch over a virtuous emperor. Once a “son of Heaven” is no longer virtuous, his rule will diminish and his empire will be doomed. In Chinese history, all the immoral emperors were eventually forsaken by Heaven. It follows that an emperor must cultivate his morality if he wishes to secure his empire. Natural and man-made disasters are believed to be manifestations of Heaven's will; hence, ancient Chinese rulers regarded them as "signs of warning from Heaven."
 
The first Chinese rulers to reflect upon themselves and admit their mistakes were Yu of the Xia Dynasty and Tang of the Shang Dynasty. According to Chinese history, after Yu ascended to the throne, he once saw a criminal and began to weep in sadness. When asked why he was so sad, Yu replied, "In the times of Emperor Yao (2356 – 2255 BC) and Emperor Shun (2294 – 2184 BC), the people followed Yao and Shun as though they were of one heart. Now I am the emperor, but the people follow their own hearts. That's what pains me." Shun was an emperor at the end of the uncivilized period in Chinese history. When he saw that his people failed to follow his examples, he felt very guilty and thought he had failed as a ruler. He blamed the crime on himself.
 
After King Tang of the Shang Dynasty overthrew Jia, the last ruler of the Xia Dynasty, he issued an edict of repentance that was later known as "The edict of Tang" in which he reflected on his mistakes. Tang wrote, "I, as an emperor, must bear all sins. I dare not forgive myself, for it is up to Heaven. I am responsible for millions of my people's sins and the consequences of the sins must not be borne by the millions of my people." Afterwards, the Shang Dynasty suffered from drought and the consequent shortage of harvests for years. A royal court official in charge of religious rites suggested offering a human sacrifice to Heaven to beg for rain. Emperor Tang refused. He cut off his long hair, trimmed his nails and prayed for rain in the forest. He blamed the drought and famine on himself. He said, "My people must not pay for my sins. If my people have sinned, I must be responsible for them. There is no need to take their lives on account of my sins." His people rejoiced and it began to rain.
 
The people were moved when Emperor Yao and Emperor Tang reflected upon themselves. In fact, the two rulers set good examples for the emperors to come.
 
According to Chinese history, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty was known for his military campaigns, territorial expansion, and his obsession with immortality and luxurious palaces. Emperor Wudi's large expenditures had exhausted the national treasury and left his people poor. Poverty turned his people into bandits and thieves that ran rampant all over his empire. Late in his reign, Emperor Wudi began to regret his policy mistakes. During the Zheng He Era of his reign (92 – 89 BC), the Emperor rejected a proposal by minister Sang Hongyang to support military expansion in the west by expanding agriculture in Luntai, Xinjiang. The emperor did not want to disturb the people again. He criticized himself in public and apologized to the whole nation for his past military policy mistakes, a gesture known to history as the “Repentance Edict of Luntai”. Tian Qianqiu, the prime minister at the time, was tasked with resting the troops, the people and promoting agriculture. Wars and territorial expansion generally ceased. Emperor Wudi completely adjusted his internal and foreign affairs policies, which secured his administration as well as the foundation for the subsequent Emperor Zhaodi and Emperor Xuandi.
 
Emperor Dezong of the Tang Dynasty also issued a repentance edict. Shortly after Emperor Dezong ascended to the throne, he tried to limit the power of regional military governors who challenged the central administration of the Tang empire. However, these fiefs revolted, and Emperor Dezong was forced to flee the capital of Chang’an in 783 AD. The rebel army pursued the emperor all the way to Tian Cheng. In the spring of 784 AD, Emperor Wudi changed his era name to Xing Yuan and issued an edict of repentance in which he blamed everything on himself. He wrote, "I didn't realize Heaven above me reproached me or the people below me resented me. I have shamed my ancestors and disappointed my people. I feel pained thinking of my mistakes. Everything is my fault." The edict touched the people and soldiers. The situation soon changed and the rebellion was pacified.
 
According to research conducted by a scholar named Xiao Han, based on The 25 Official Dynastic Histories, 79 Chinese emperors issued an edict of repentance. In the face of natural and man-made disasters, these Chinese rulers self-criticized, repented for, and rectified their mistakes. By shouldering their responsibilities, these emperors found a way to avoid further disasters. Their actions have demonstrated the conscience of virtuous rulers in ancient China. Their people were very lucky. But more importantly, their actions manifested one of the essential elements of traditional Chinese political culture.
 
帝王罪己
 
在中国历史上，从禹、汤到汉武帝、唐德宗、清世祖、清圣祖，每当有重大的天灾人祸发生时，帝王们常常都要反省自己──我做错了甚么？为甚么上天会震怒？然后，沐浴斋戒，拜祭天地，甚至向天下发出《罪己诏》，公开对自身的过错和失败进行反省忏悔，向上天、向所有百姓承诺一定会改正错误，并要求天下人务必要劝谏、监督自己，以此来获得上天的原谅，免得上天降罪、百姓受苦。
 
自责己过，对有良知者来说，原是件平常的事。但作为“君权神授”的古代帝王，能对自己的过错反省悔悟，却实属不易，倘若再写成文告───《罪己诏》，颁示天下，那就更难得了。那么，何以贵为“天子”的古代帝王会公开对自身的过错和失败进行反省忏悔呢？这就得追溯到中国的文化传统了。
 
在中国古代，天神（即上帝，或称天帝等）是天地间至高无上的主宰，“奉天承运，受命于天”的帝王，是上天派到人间的统治者，故称“天子”。在我们的祖先看来，“皇天无亲，惟德是辅；民心无常，惟惠之怀”，上帝的眷顾与“天子”的个人德行息息相关，天命只会眷顾“有德之君”，一旦“天子”失德，势必就会影响到王朝的兴衰，“失德之君”最终都会被天命所遗弃。因此，君王如果想要江山永固，就得修德以配天，而天灾人祸则是“天意”的体现，古代统治者大都视其为“天象示警”。
 
历史上最早“罪己”的古代帝王是禹、汤。史载，大禹登上帝位后，有一次看见犯罪之人，就伤心的哭了起来，左右问其故，禹曰：“尧舜之时，民皆用尧舜之心为心，而予为君，百姓各以其心为心，是以痛之。”生活在原始社会末期的禹见民心涣散，深感内疚，认为自己没有当好这个首领，于是自责。
 
商灭夏后，汤布告天下，安抚民心，史称《汤诰》。汤深刻的检讨了自己的过错，曰：“罪当朕躬，弗敢自赦，惟简在上帝之心，其尔万方有罪在予一人，予一人有罪无以尔万方”。此后，适逢商连年大旱，五谷不收，负责宗教祭祀的大臣说，要用人为牺牲，向上帝祈祷求雨。于是，汤“剪发断爪”，身为牺牲，祷于桑林，曰：“余一人有罪无及万夫，万夫有罪在余一人。无以一人之不敬，使上帝鬼神伤民之命”。于是，民大悦，雨亦大至。
 
禹、汤罪己，都取得了良好的效应，遂成为后世帝王皇帝效法的榜样。
 
史载汉武帝即位后穷兵黩武，好大喜功，又好神仙方士，大造宫室，挥霍无度，致使民力枯竭，寇盗并起，天下大乱。武帝晚年渐有所悔，征和年间，他驳回了大臣桑弘羊等人屯田轮台（今新疆轮台县）的奏请，决定“弃轮台之地，而下哀痛之诏”。他“深陈既往之悔”，不忍心再“扰劳天下”，决心“禁苛暴，止擅赋，力本农”。“由是不复出军。而封丞相车千秋为富民侯，以明休息，思富养民也”。这就是历史上著名的《轮台罪己诏》。汉武帝晚年面对大厦将倾的危难局面，幡然醒悟，痛改前非，全面调整了国家的内外政策，不但使政权转危为安，而且也为“昭、宣中兴”打下了基础。
 
唐代也有位皇帝在危难之时发过罪己诏，他就是唐德宗。此君即位不久，就先后有号称“四王”、“二帝”的几个节度使举兵反叛。公元783年，长安失守，德宗仓皇逃亡，被叛军一路追杀至奉天城。次年春，他痛定思痛，改年号为“兴元”，并颁《罪己大赦诏》，“分命朝臣诸道宣谕”。诏书中历数了自己的罪过后，说：“天谴于上而朕不悟，人怨于下而朕不知”，“上累于祖宗，下负于蒸庶，痛心疾首，罪实在予”。此诏文字真挚动人，很有感召力，颁后，“四方人心大悦”，“士卒皆感泣”，民心军心为之大振，局势因而大变。不久，动乱即告平息。
 
据学者萧瀚根据《二十五史》进行的统计显示，中国历史上共有79位皇帝下过罪己诏。在天灾人祸面前能够自责，反省忏悔自己做错了甚么，从而修正自己的错误，承担自己应负的责任，找到避免天灾应对人祸的方法，这充份体现了古代明君的良知，更是天下万民的一份福气，也是中国传统政治文化的精华之一。